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Neal Margulis is an applications engineer for Intel Corp. and can be reached at 2625 Walsh Ave., SC4-40, Santa Clara, CA 95051. __________________________________________________________________ The 32-bit mode of the Intel 80386 and the 80386SX provides significant architectural advantages over the 80286. ln addition, software that takes advantage of these advanced features has significant performance improvements. An application program running in the 80386's native 32-bit mode typically executes from two to six times faster than the equivalent application written for the 80286. Furthermore, programs that manipulate large data structures are easier to write when you use the 32-bit mode of the 80386. Among the features that the 80386 provides over the 80286 are support for large segment sizes, 32-bit data operations, and paged memory management. The program presented here shows how to initialize the 80386 into protected mode, how to define segments greater than 64K in size, and how to return to real mode. You can use this program as a template for coding applications that use the 80386 features. Although the 80386SX has a reduced physical addressing space of 16 Mbytes (the maximum address space of AT architecture), its programming model is the same as that of the 80386. Thus the template can be used with it as well. This article explains how the code works and briefly describes how to adapt the template to suit your individual needs. You may also find it helpful to refer to one of many 80386 programming articles, such as "Programming on the 80386" (DDJ, October 1986). Additional information can be found in the Intel 80386 Programmers Reference Guide and the 80386 Data Sheet, as well as the book Programming the 80386 by Crawford and Gelsinger (Sybex Books). 32-Bit Data Operations The ability to operate on 32 bits of data adds power to arithmetic and logical instructions. While the 80286 generates only 16-bit data, the 80386 contains eight general-purpose 32-bit registers. Segments for 80386 protected mode are set to either use16 or use32, which indicates the default sizes for data and addressing. in real mode, the 80386 is limited to only use16 segments. An override prefix must be designated in order to perform 32-bit operations within a protected mode use16 segment. This results in greater program length and a possible decrease in performance. The 80386 in protected mode allows for both use16 and use32 segments. No override prefixes are necessary for 32-bit data operations or 32-bit addressing in a use32 segment. In the program shown in [52]Listing One, page 84, CSEG and C3 are use16 code segments because they must be executable from real mode, and PMODE segment is a use32 code segment. Large Segments The 64K limit on the segment size of the 80286 and the real mode 80386 hinder the addressing of large data arrays and of long sequences of code. Reloading segments is time consuming, disrupts the task at hand, and causes an unnatural breakup of procedures and data. The 80386 protected mode allows for segments up to 4 gigabytes in size. The base, limit, and granularity fields of segment descriptors specify the segment size and location in memory. The base represents a linear address and the segment size is determined by the limit and the granularity (G) bit. When the G bit is a zero, the actual limit is the 20-bit limit field of the descriptor (Maximum size 2^20 = 1 Mbyte). If the G bit is a one, then the limit field page granularity is multiplied by 4K. This gives a maximum limit of 4 gigabytes (2^20 * 2^12). The base's linear address is 32-bits long, thus allowing it to be specified anywhere within the 4-gigabyte address space. Segmentation is the basis for protection. Data and code segments can reside in separate, nonoverlapping areas of memory. In addition, privilege levels assigned to different segments provide a mechanism for limiting access to certain data or privileged instruction sequences (for both). The 80386 provides four privilege levels. In the program presented in [53]Listing One, all segments are of the highest privilege level (0). You can change this by modifying the segment descriptors and the selectors. 4-Gigabyte Addressing To use the increased segment sizes, the 80386 has expanded the instruction pointer to 32-bits and added new addressing modes. As a result, segment loads and stores within a procedure can be eliminated and the entire physical address space can be accessed as one segment. The template program sets up a data segment that starts at the base of video memory 0B8000H. The entire address space is accessible through a segment that begins at zero. The effective address of a memory operand can be obtained through an absolute address or through one of the register-base methods of the following form: [base register] + [(index register * scale) + displacement] The 80386 also has page translation by which linear addresses can be resolved to physical addresses. Page translation occurs when the PG bit in CR0 is set. Two levels of tables are used to address each page of memory. The higher-level table is the page directory, which addresses up to 1K second-level page tables. These second-level page tables address up to 1K pages, each being 4K. Because all pages are of equal size, page translation can reduce the memory fragmentation that occurs when using segmentation for on-demand memory allocation. The template program does not use paging, so all linear addresses are treated as the physical address. Setting Up the Descriptor Tables Before entering protected mode, you must set up descriptor tables and load the 80386 with pointers to these tables. While in real mode, the program in [54]Listing One sets up a global descriptor table (GDT) and does not require a local descriptor table. Starting at the memory location designated by the label GDT__table, successive 8-byte descriptor entries make up the GDT. MASM's STRUC feature makes coding of the entries much easier. Because DOS determines the memory location of the program at run time, the absolute addresses must also be calculated at run time. The template program determines the bases for each of the segments and the pointer to the descriptor table. This table pointer consists of a 32-bit linear address and a 16-bit limit. Such 48-bit (6-byte) objects are sometimes referred to as a PWORD or FWORD data type. Using a QWORD (8 bytes), as in this program, helps to maintain portability between assemblers. The Type field of the descriptor determines whether segments that use this descriptor contain code or data. Descriptors to specify gates, task state segments, and local descriptor tables are also available, but are not used in this example. Entering Protected Mode Having set up the descriptor table, it is simple to enter protected mode. The PE bit of Control Register Zero (CR0) is set to one, and then a jump is executed. The jump flushes the prefetch queue, which contains instructions that were decoded for execution in real mode. Either a near or a far jump will flush the prefetch queue. By using a far jump, the 80386 reloads the code segment register (CS) and the internal segment descriptor cache. The far jump instruction uses selector 08H, which is GDT entry 1. This is the PMODE segment entry. Execution in this segment allows native 32-bit operations. (Bits 15 through 3 of the selector determine the GDT table entry. Bit 2 is Table indicator, and bits 1 and 0 are the privilege level.) The Jump instructions are handcoded by using the define byte (DB) assembler directive. Opcode 0EAH specifies an intersegment jump, with the next two fields of the instruction being the offset and the segment selector operands. In this example, all of the offsets are zero because the jump targets are at the start of their respective segments. The offset size is either a 16-bit or 32-bit field. This is determined by the code segment type size in which the jump instruction occurs. The segment selector field of the jump instruction determines which descriptor table entry is the target segment for the jump. Returning to Real Mode Returning to real mode on the 80286 requires that you reset the processor. On an PC AT, this means saving the required processor contents, placing a reset code in the CMOS RAM, storing a return address in memory, and using the keyboard controller to reset the processor. Although 386 based ATs support this reset scheme, a much simpler and far faster way to return the 386 to real mode is available. In the C3 segment of the example program, the 80386 is returned to real mode by clearing the PE bit then executing a jump instruction to flush the instruction queue. To assure proper operation after returning to real mode, the segment registers must be loaded with real mode type selectors while still in protected mode. Entry 4 in the GDT represents what should be in the segment descriptor caches during real mode. They have a 64K limit with the base at zero and the top 2 bytes set to zero. Other Considerations In the early days of PCs, some programs took advantage of addresses wrapping around to zero after the limit of the 8088 was exceeded. When the 80286-based AT was introduced, it was necessary to emulate this address wrapping. An enable gate was added to address line 20. To prevent unwanted wrapping, you must enable this gate. The code for doing this is located in the IBM Technical References for the AT and PS/2. The procedures are different because the AT uses the keyboard controller to enable the address line. The programming example indicates where to insert the procedures for enabling and disabling of the address line. [LISTING ONE] _80386 PROTECTED MODE INITIALIZATION_ by Neal Margulis comment #***************************** Program by Neal Margulis -- Use MASM 5.0 #************************************* descriptor STRUC limit_0_15 dw 0 ; lowest 16 bits of segment limit base_0_15 dw 0 ; lowest 16 bits of base base_16_23 db 0 ; base bits 16-23 access db 0 ; Present bit, priv. level, type gran db 0 ; G bit, D/B bit , limit bits 16-19 base_24_31 db 0 ; base bits 24-31 descriptor ENDS code_seg_access equ 09AH ; Present, DPL=0, non-conforming,read/exec data_seg_access equ 092H ; Present, DPL=0, Expand-Up,writeable ; have screenbase equal B8000H for EGA or B0000H for monochrome screenbase EQU 0B8000H screenseg EQU 0B800H CSEG segment word use16 'code' assume cs:CSEG,ds:CSEG mov ax,CSEG mov ds, ax ; Make entries in GDT for PMODE segment as code or data mov ax, seg PMODE and eax, 0FFFFh shl eax, 4H mov ebx, eax shr eax, 16 mov gdt_PM_1.base_0_15, bx mov gdt_PM_2.base_0_15, bx mov gdt_PM_1.base_16_23,al mov gdt_PM_2.base_16_23,al ; Make entry in GDT for C3 segment as code mov ax,seg C3 and eax, 0FFFFH shl eax, 4H mov ebx, eax shr eax, 16 mov gdt_c3_5.base_0_15, bx mov gdt_c3_5.base_16_23,al ; Set up gdtr for lgdt instruction mov ax, cs and eax, 0FFFFH shl eax, 4H add eax, offset gdttbl mov dword ptr gdtaddr+2,eax lgdt gdtaddr ; set GDT address A20_ON: cld ; Clear direction flag cli ; Disable interrupts ; Enter Protected Mode mov eax,cr0 or eax,1 mov cr0,eax ; Enable protected mode ;flush prefetch queue DB 0EAH,0H,0H,08H,0H ; jmp to PMODE and execute gdtaddr label qword dw 48 dd ? dw 0 ; global descriptor table gdttbl label dword gdt_null descriptor <,,,,,> ; GDT entry 0 (null descriptor) gdt_PM_1 descriptor <0FFFFH,,,code_seg_access,0C0H,0> ; D bit ON gdt_PM_2 descriptor <0FFFFH,,,data_seg_access,08FH,> ; gdt_3 descriptor <0FFFFH,0,0,data_seg_access,08FH,0> gdt_rm_4 descriptor <0FFFFH,0,0,data_seg_access,08fH,0> gdt_c3_5 descriptor <0FFFFH,,,code_seg_access,080H,0> ; D bit OFF CSEG ends PMODE segment para public use32 'code' assume cs:PMODE mov ax, 18h ;selector 18H is 4 Gigabyte data segment with ; base at 0 mov es, ax mov fs, ax mov ax, 10h ; Data segment with base at 'c2seg' mov ds, ax mov cx, 025h mov edi,screenbase ; Addressing screen memory from protected mode display:mov byte ptr es:[edi],'P' add edi,2 mov byte ptr es:[edi],'M' add edi,2 mov byte ptr es:[edi],' ' add edi,2 loopne display db 0eah, 0h, 0h, 0h, 0h,28h, 0h ; jmp to c3 and execute align 16 pdat db 0ach lastpm label dword PMODE ends c3 segment para public use16 'code' assume cs:c3 mov ax, 20h ; Change segments back to have valid mov es, ax ; real mode attributes. mov ds, ax mov fs, ax mov eax,cr0 and eax, 07ffffffeh mov cr0,eax ; enter real mode jmp far ptr flushrl ; flush queue flushrl: mov ax, screenseg ; Address screen memory from real mode mov ds, ax sub edi, 0b8000h mov si,di mov byte ptr ds:[si],'C' ; Write to screen add si,2 mov byte ptr ds:[si],'3' A20_off: mov ah, 04ch ; DOS termination mov al, 01h int 21h c3 ends end Related Reading * [55]News * [56]Commentary News * [57]Tools To Build Payment-Enabled Mobile Apps * [58]Parasoft DevTest Shifts To Continuous * [59]A Datacenter Operating System For Data Developers * [60]XMind 6 Public Beta Now Available[61]More News» Commentary * [62]biicode 2.0 Is Buzzing * [63]Things That Go Boom * [64]Application Intelligence For Advanced Dummies * [65]Devart dbForge Studio For MySQL With Phrase Completion[66]More Commentary» * [67]Slideshow * [68]Video Slideshow * [69]Jolt Awards: The Best Books * [70]Developer Reading List * [71]The Most Underused Compiler Switches in Visual C++ * [72]Jolt Awards: Coding Tools[73]More Slideshows» Video * [74]Verizon App Challenge Winners * [75]IBM Mobile Developer Challenge * [76][email protected] Showcase * [77]Connected Vehicles[78]More Videos» * [79]Most Popular Most Popular * [80]RESTful Web Services: A Tutorial * [81]Lambda Expressions in Java 8 * [82]Developer Reading List: The Must-Have Books for JavaScript * [83]An Algorithm for Compressing Space and Time[84]More Popular» __________________________________________________________________ More Insights White Papers * [85]Maximize the Human Potential of Your SOC * [86]Real-time Endpoint Security with Automated Incident Response [87]More >> Reports * [88]Proven Success Factors for Endpoint Security * [89]Intel 471 Breach Report [90]More >> Webcasts * [91]4 Tips for Enabling Collaboration Among Remote Designers * [92]Why We're Still Stuck on Passwords [93]More >> __________________________________________________________________ INFO-LINK * * * * [dobbs_disqus_logo.gif] Currently we allow the following HTML tags in comments: Single tags These tags can be used alone and don't need an ending tag.
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